Molybdenum

Molybdenum is a natural essential mineral belonging to the supplement class.

Molybdenum is also known as Mo or molybdenite.

Molybdenum is a cofactor for several enzymes involved in procedures, including sulphur metabolism and detoxifying certain substances, which are essential for optimal well-being.

Molybdenum deficiency is very uncommon in humans. It may lead to decreased sulfite oxidase activity and sulfite toxicity in a patient receiving long-term complete parenteral nutrition. Symptoms like tachycardia, tachypnea, headache, nausea, vomiting, and coma characterize it.

Milk, yoghurt, cheese, legumes like black-eyed peas and lima beans, whole grains, rice, almonds, potatoes, bananas, green vegetables, and organ meats are the foods which contain the highest amount of dietary molybdenum.

After being absorbed in the small intestine, molybdenum is transferred to organs like the liver, where it plays a vital role in the production of enzymes. It provides an essential cofactor within cells. Molybdenum is mostly eliminated through urine, with small amounts found in sweat and faeces.

The common side effects of molybdenum include diarrhoea, lethargy, headaches, increased serum uric acid levels and gout-like symptoms (formation of tiny crystals around the joints, leading to pain and swelling)

Biochemical action of Molybdenum

Molybdenum belonging to the supplement class helps in several enzymatic processes. Molybdenum acts via molybdenum enzyme-mediated biochemical pathways.

Molybdenum is a cofactor of three crucial human enzymes—sulfite oxidase, xanthine oxidase, and aldehyde oxidase. These enzymes facilitate the breakdown of sulphur amino acids and heterocyclic substances like purines and pyridines because they include functional molybdenum in organic molybdopterin. Molybdenum is required because of genetic defects that inhibit the formation of sulfite oxidase. However, animals with reduced molybdoenzyme activity haven't displayed clear signs of insufficiency—failure to convert sulfite to sulphate results in substantial brain damage and early death. The importance of molybdenum for metabolism is further demonstrated by instances like amino acid intolerance brought on by prolonged parenteral feeding without molybdenum, which was resolved by replacing ammonium molybdate. These instances demonstrate the vital role of molybdenum in enzymatic processes and show the importance of molybdenum in enzymatic processes and for several metabolic pathways.

Molybdenum is available in injectable solutions.

Injectable solutions are to be administered parenterally, as applicable.

Molybdenum can be used as a supplement when the amount of molybdenum taken from the diet is insufficient.

Molybdenum supplements taken by IV may be used to prevent and treat molybdenum deficiency, a condition in which the body needs molybdenum.

Molybdenum supplement helps the body break down medicines, harmful compounds that are ingested, and proteins and genetic information like DNA.

Molybdenum supplements may support healthy immunological function and neuronal cells.

Vitamins and natural supplements should not replace a balanced diet.

This product is not intended to diagnose, treat or prevent any disease(s).

Molybdenum may be useful as a supplement for the following health benefits:

• Prevention and treatment of deficiency: A deficiency of molybdenum can impair enzyme functions, specifically sulfite oxidase, xanthine oxidase, and aldehyde oxidase. Sulfite sensitivity, an altered purine metabolism, and potential detoxification issues are among the symptoms that could arise from this. However, as it is present in a healthy diet, molybdenum shortage is rare.
• Toxin breakdown: Aldehyde oxidase and xanthine oxidase are two enzymes molybdenum utilises to break down toxins. These enzymes help the body detoxify and eliminate toxins and waste by converting toxic chemicals.
• Anti-oxidant: Normally, molybdenum is not regarded as an antioxidant in and of itself. Reactive oxygen species may be produced due to some molybdenum-containing enzymes, such as xanthine oxidase. These metabolites may have pro-oxidant or antioxidant effects depending on the environment and amounts. The function of molybdenum in various enzymatic processes may indirectly affect the body's defence mechanisms against oxidative stress and antioxidant imbalance.
• Metabolism of carbohydrates: In the process of metabolising carbohydrates, molybdenum plays no direct role. It mainly involves the metabolism of sulphur amino acids, purines, and pyridines, as well as detoxifying procedures. The body's other components and enzymes play a major role in controlling how carbohydrates are metabolised.
• Anti-inflammatory: The body's physiological systems, including the metabolism of several medications and poisons, are influenced by the trace mineral molybdenum. However, there isn't sufficient scientific data to clearly correlate molybdenum consumption to anti-inflammatory effects. Compounds including omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidants, and certain drugs are frequently linked to anti-inflammatory properties. Thus molybdenum is an indirect anti-inflammatory action and helps the body process toxins through the liver.
• Arthritis: The role of molybdenum in xanthine oxidase, an enzyme linked to purine metabolism, may impact arthritis. Increased purine metabolism may affect uric acid levels and inflammation, contributing to the development of several types of arthritis, including gout. The process is complex and influenced by several factors.
• Fertility: Molybdenum promotes fertility by increasing metabolic enzyme activities, such as those required for hormone production and reproductive processes. The general health of reproduction is influenced by its function in cellular processes.

Molybdenum supplementation may be administered parenterally.

Typically, intravenous (IV) injections are used to give molybdenum parenterally. The element will enter the bloodstream directly via this process.

The dosage and duration of treatment should be as per the clinical judgment of the treating healthcare professional).

Vitamins and natural supplements should not replace a balanced diet

This product is not intended to diagnose, treat or prevent any disease(s).

Injectable solutions: 25mcg/mL

Molybdenum is available in injectable solutions.

Molybdenum should be used as a supplement that helps in a number of biochemical processes along with appropriate dietary restrictions.

• Avoid alcoholic beverages.
• Stay within your daily calorie needs.
• Avoid smoking cigarettes.
• Limit foods and drinks with added sugars, saturated fat, and sodium.

The dietary restriction should be individualized as per patient requirements.

Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA)

The RDA of Molybdenum is 45 μg/day.

Upper Tolerable Intake (UTL):

The UTL set for molybdenum is 2 mg/day

Molybdenum supplementation may be contraindicated in the following conditions:

• Hypersensitivity; sensitive to Molybdenum.
• Gallstones or kidney problems
• Hepatic impairment
• Copper deficient patients
• Gout

For individuals on hemodialysis, Molybdenum from supplements might need to be absorbed better in people.

Molybdenum supplements should be used cautiously in liver/biliary tract dysfunction.

Undiluted molybdenum injection into peripheral vein may increase the risk of infusion phlebitis.

Avoid exceeding the recommended dose in pregnant and lactating mothers is advised.

Molybdenum supplements may need to be used with caution by people who have renal issues since too much molybdenum consumption may damage kidney function.

Caution is advised when consuming alcohol with Molybdenum.

Detected in breast milk is unclear; Use cautiously during breastfeeding.

Unsafe to use during pregnancy.

Limit the consumption of foods and beverages higher in added sugars, saturated fat, and sodium alcoholic beverages, as these substances could hinder Molybdenum absorption.

The adverse reactions related to Molybdenum can be categorized as-

• Common: Consuming molybdenum as a component in a balanced diet is not related to any well-established common adverse reactions.
• Less Common: Diarrhea, elevated uric acid levels in the blood.
• Rare: Gout-like symptoms and neurological effects

There are no known, clinically significant interactions between drugs and molybdenum.

The common side of molybdenum includes the following:

• Nausea
• Diarrhoea
• Lethargy
• Headaches
• Poor bone health
• Decreased fertility
• Elevated uric acid levels in the blood
• Joint pain
• Swelling and inflammation

The use of Molybdenum should be prudent in the following group of special populations.

• Pregnancy:

Pregnancy Category: C. Safe during pregnancy, but when taken in high doses, use with caution if the benefits outweigh the risks.

The RDA for Molybdenum in pregnant women is 50 mcg/day.

• Paediatrics:

Molybdenum supplements are the best way to help children get enough molybdenum daily. Molybdenum is LIKELY SAFE for children at doses below the UL.

The RDA for molybdenum in paediatrics ranges from 2-43 mcg/day.

Dosage Adjustment for Paediatric Patients

There are no specific dosage adjustments provided.

• Geriatrics:

There is no sufficient scientific evidence traceable regarding the use and safety of Molybdenum for use in special populations.

• Lactating mothers:

When consumed more than RDA, molybdenum is detected in the breast milk and harms a breastfeeding infant, so it is advised to use it cautiously.

The RDA for Molybdenum in lactating mothers is 50 mcg/day.

Dosage Adjustment in Kidney Impairment

There are no specific dosage adjustments provided.

Dosage Adjustment in Hepatic Impairment

There are no specific dosage adjustments provided.

Dosage Adjustment for Adult Patients

Supplementation in Patients Receiving TPN

20-120 mcg/day administered in TPN

Molybdenum Deficiency from Prolonged TPN Support

163 mcg/day added to TPN for 21 days shown to be effective

The physician should be vigilant about the knowledge pertaining to identifying and treating overdosage of Molybdenum. When taking too much molybdenum, gastrointestinal problems such as nausea, vomiting, or diarrhoea may occur. A raised heart rate, joint soreness, muscular pains and neurological issues are further potential symptoms. Kidney damage may occur in severe cases of molybdenum poisoning.

There is no specific antidote or treatment for excessive intake of supplemental Molybdenum. When an overdose is suspected or experience any unusual symptoms after molybdenum supplement use or dietary intake, molybdenum supplements should be terminated immediately. Supportive treatment should also be given, along with addressing any symptoms that persist or worsen, and physical therapy might be added if necessary.

Biochemistry profile of Molybdenum

. Molybdenum is a vital trace element necessary for numerous types of enzymatic activities in living organisms. It is mostly absorbed into the molybdenum cofactor (MoCo), which is essential for catalysing redox processes in the body. MoCo-dependent enzymes metabolise Amino acids that contain sulphur and other crucial processes like purine catabolism. The bloodstream transports molybdenum from the digestive system to the tissues, where it is distributed. Molybdenum is required for the action of several enzymes, including xanthine oxidase and sulfite oxidase, which are crucial for several physiological processes. Molybdenum is found in foods like grains and legumes, but consuming too much of it might have adverse effects. The complex function of molybdenum in cellular redox chemistry emphasises its significance in preserving health while illustrating the need for a balanced diet.

Kinetic profile:

• Absorption: Molybdenum is primarly absorbed in the small intestine through active transport mechanisms and the enters the bloodstream after absorption
• Distribution: The distribution of molybdenum is essential because it serves as an enzyme cofactor. It distributes throughout tissues, with larger quantities in the liver and kidneys.
• Metabolism: Molybdenum is incorporated into the molybdenum cofactor (Moco) within cells. In procedures like sulphur metabolism and detoxification, moco is crucial for enzyme function. The molybdenum's active forms, molybdenum VI and IV, are converted within the body.
• Elimination: The body maintains the balance of molybdenum through intake and excretion. Molybdenum is mostly eliminated in the urine, with small amounts also seen in faeces and sweat. The liver stores extra molybdenum and releases it when required.

1. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5952949/
2. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Molybdenum-HealthProfessional/
3. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Molybdenum-Consumer/
4. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK222301/

5. National Institute of Nutrition. 2011. Dietary guidelines for Indians; 2nd Edition. Hyderabad. India

6. https://www.fssai.gov.in/upload/advisories/2021/07/60f1798019f94Direction_RDA_16_07_2021.pdf